Glassmaking in Ancient India: A Review of Classical Texts and Archaeological Evidence

Abstract

Glassmaking technology has a long history in India. This study examines the classical Indian texts, archaeological excavations, and scientific analyses to explore glassmaking methods in ancient India. Glass, as mentioned in works such as the Arthaśāstra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Suśruta Saṃhitā, and Rasaratna Samuccaya, represents a valuable asset, used in ornaments, surgical instruments, ceremonial objects, and other valued applications. Chemical compositional studies reveal that Indian silica glasses contain high concentrations of Al2O3, Na2O, and K2O, which contribute to high viscosity and durability, especially in humid environments. Analyses of glass artefacts from various sites show differing chemical compositions, indicating regional diversity in glassmaking techniques, while theoretical oxide compositional studies estimate corresponding differences in melting points and viscosity. Indian glassmakers also used additives such as Cu2O, Sb2O3, and PbO to produce red, white, and other coloured opaque glasses under controlled atmospheric conditions. These findings demonstrate an advanced understanding of glass composition control, colour chemistry, distillation techniques, moulding, and adaptation to environmental conditions. By integrating insights from archaeology, ancient texts, and chemical analysis, this study provides a comprehensive account of glassmaking technologies in ancient India, emphasising their technological and scientific complexity.

Keywords

• Archaeological evidence
• Archaeological science
• Best evidence